实例介绍
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Contents Chapter 1 Preliminaries 1 1.1 Reasons for Studying Concepts of Programming Languages ............... 2 1.2 Programming Domains ..................................................................... 5 1.3 Language Evaluation Criteria ........................................................... 7 1.4 Influences on Language Design ....................................................... 18 1.5 Language Categories ...................................................................... 21 1.6 Language Design Trade-Offs ........................................................... 23 1.7 Implementation Methods ................................................................ 23 1.8 Programming Environments ........................................................... 31 Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set .............................................. 31 Chapter 2 Evolution of the Major Programming Languages 35 2.1 Zuse’s Plankalkül .......................................................................... 38 2.2 Pseudocodes .................................................................................. 39 2.3 The IBM 704 and Fortran .............................................................. 42 2.4 Functional Programming: LISP ...................................................... 47 2.5 The First Step Toward Sophistication: ALGOL 60 ........................... 52 2.6 Computerizing Business Records: COBOL ........................................ 58 2.7 The Beginnings of Timesharing: BASIC ........................................... 63 Interview: ALAN COOPER—User Design and Language Design................. 66 2.8 Everything for Everybody: PL/I ...................................................... 68 2.9 Two Early Dynamic Languages: APL and SNOBOL ......................... 71 2.10 The Beginnings of Data Abstraction: SIMULA 67 ........................... 72 2.11 Orthogonal Design: ALGOL 68 ....................................................... 73 2.12 Some Early Descendants of the ALGOLs ......................................... 75 Contents xiii 2.13 Programming Based on Logic: Prolog ............................................. 79 2.14 History’s Largest Design Effort: Ada .............................................. 81 2.15 Object-Oriented Programming: Smalltalk ........................................ 85 2.16 Combining Imperative and Object-Oriented Features: C ................ 88 2.17 An Imperative-Based Object-Oriented Language: Java ..................... 91 2.18 Scripting Languages ....................................................................... 95 2.19 The Flagship .NET Language: C# ................................................. 101 2.20 Markup/Programming Hybrid Languages ...................................... 104 Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ........................................................................... 106 Chapter 3 Describing Syntax and Semantics 113 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 114 3.2 The General Problem of Describing Syntax .................................... 115 3.3 Formal Methods of Describing Syntax ........................................... 117 3.4 Attribute Grammars ..................................................................... 132 History Note ..................................................................................... 133 3.5 Describing the Meanings of Programs: Dynamic Semantics ............ 139 History Note ..................................................................................... 154 Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set ........... 161 Chapter 4 Lexical and Syntax Analysis 167 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 168 4.2 Lexical Analysis ........................................................................... 169 4.3 The Parsing Problem .................................................................... 177 4.4 Recursive-Descent Parsing ............................................................ 181 4.5 Bottom-Up Parsing ...................................................................... 190 Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ..... 197 Chapter 5 Names, Bindings, and Scopes 203 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 204 5.2 Names ......................................................................................... 205 History Note ..................................................................................... 205 xiv Contents 5.3 Variables ..................................................................................... 207 5.4 The Concept of Binding ................................................................ 209 5.5 Scope .......................................................................................... 218 5.6 Scope and Lifetime ...................................................................... 229 5.7 Referencing Environments ............................................................ 230 5.8 Named Constants ......................................................................... 232 Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ..... 234 Chapter 6 Data Types 243 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 244 6.2 Primitive Data Types .................................................................... 246 6.3 Character String Types ................................................................. 250 History Note ..................................................................................... 251 6.4 User-Defined Ordinal Types ........................................................... 255 6.5 Array Types .................................................................................. 259 History Note ..................................................................................... 260 History Note ..................................................................................... 261 6.6 Associative Arrays ........................................................................ 272 Interview: ROBERTO IERUSALIMSCHY—Lua ........................... 274 6.7 Record Types ................................................................................ 276 6.8 Tuple Types .................................................................................. 280 6.9 List Types .................................................................................... 281 6.10 Union Types ................................................................................. 284 6.11 Pointer and Reference Types ......................................................... 289 History Note ..................................................................................... 293 6.12 Type Checking .............................................................................. 302 6.13 Strong Typing ............................................................................... 303 6.14 Type Equivalence.......................................................................... 304 6.15 Theory and Data Types ................................................................. 308 Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ........................................................................... 310 Contents xv Chapter 7 Expressions and Assignment Statements 317 7.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 318 7.2 Arithmetic Expressions ................................................................ 318 7.3 Overloaded Operators ................................................................... 328 7.4 Type Conversions .......................................................................... 329 History Note ..................................................................................... 332 7.5 Relational and Boolean Expressions .............................................. 332 History Note ..................................................................................... 333 7.6 Short-Circuit Evaluation .............................................................. 335 7.7 Assignment Statements ................................................................ 336 History Note ..................................................................................... 340 7.8 Mixed-Mode Assignment .............................................................. 341 Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ..... 341 Chapter 8 Statement-Level Control Structures 347 8.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 348 8.2 Selection Statements .................................................................... 350 8.3 Iterative Statements ..................................................................... 362 8.4 Unconditional Branching .............................................................. 375 History Note ..................................................................................... 376 8.5 Guarded Commands ..................................................................... 376 8.6 Conclusions .................................................................................. 379 Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ..... 380 Chapter 9 Subprograms 387 9.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 388 9.2 Fundamentals of Subprograms ..................................................... 388 9.3 Design Issues for Subprograms ..................................................... 396 9.4 Local Referencing Environments ................................................... 397 9.5 Parameter-Passing Methods ......................................................... 399 History Note ..................................................................................... 407 History Note ..................................................................................... 407 xvi Contents 9.6 Parameters That Are Subprograms ............................................... 417 9.7 Calling Subprograms Indirectly ..................................................... 419 History Note ..................................................................................... 419 9.8 Overloaded Subprograms .............................................................. 421 9.9 Generic Subprograms ................................................................... 422 9.10 Design Issues for Functions .......................................................... 428 9.11 User-Defined Overloaded Operators ............................................... 430 9.12 Closures ...................................................................................... 430 9.13 Coroutines ................................................................................... 432 Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ..... 435 Chapter 10 Implementing Subprograms 441 10.1 The General Semantics of Calls and Returns.................................. 442 10.2 Implementing “Simple” Subprograms ........................................... 443 10.3 Implementing Subprograms with Stack-Dynamic Local Variables ... 445 10.4 Nested Subprograms .................................................................... 454 10.5 Blocks ......................................................................................... 460 10.6 Implementing Dynamic Scoping .................................................... 462 Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ..... 466 Chapter 11 Abstract Data Types and Encapsulation Constructs 473 11.1 The Concept of Abstraction .......................................................... 474 11.2 Introduction to Data Abstraction .................................................. 475 11.3 Design Issues for Abstract Data Types ........................................... 478 11.4 Language Examples ..................................................................... 479 Interview: BJARNE STROUSTRUP—C : Its Birth, Its Ubiquitousness, and Common Criticisms ............................................. 480 11.5 Parameterized Abstract Data Types ............................................... 503 11.6 Encapsulation Constructs ............................................................. 509 11.7 Naming Encapsulations ................................................................ 513 Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ..... 517 xviii Contents Chapter 14 Exception Handling and Event Handling 629 14.1 Introduction to Exception Handling .............................................. 630 History Note ..................................................................................... 634 14.2 Exception Handling in Ada ........................................................... 636 14.3 Exception Handling in C ........................................................... 643 14.4 Exception Handling in Java .......................................................... 647 14.5 Introduction to Event Handling ..................................................... 655 14.6 Event Handling with Java ............................................................. 656 14.7 Event Handling in C# ................................................................... 661 Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ........................................................................... 664 Chapter 15 Functional Programming Languages 671 15.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 672 15.2 Mathematical Functions ............................................................... 673 15.3 Fundamentals of Functional Programming Languages ................... 676 15.4 The First Functional Programming Language: LISP ..................... 677 15.5 An Introduction to Scheme ........................................................... 681 15.6 Common LISP ............................................................................. 699 15.7 ML .............................................................................................. 701 15.8 Haskell ........................................................................................ 707 15.9 F# ............................................................................................... 712 15.10 Support for Functional Programming in Primarily Imperative Languages .................................................................. 715 15.11 A Comparison of Functional and Imperative Languages ................. 717 Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ........................................................................... 720 Chapter 16 Logic Programming Languages 727 16.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 728 16.2 A Brief Introduction to Predicate Calculus .................................... 728 16.3 Predicate Calculus and Proving Theorems ..................................... 732 Contents xix 16.4 An Overview of Logic Programming .............................................. 734 16.5 The Origins of Prolog ................................................................... 736 16.6 The Basic Elements of Prolog ....................................................... 736 16.7 Deficiencies of Prolog .................................................................. 751 16.8 Applications of Logic Programming .............................................. 757 Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ........................................................................... 758 Bibliography ................................................................................ 763 Index ........................................................................................... 773
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