Handbook of Robotics.pdf

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Contents
List of Abbreviations ............................................................. LXIII
1 Robotics and the Handbook
Bruno Siciliano, Oussama Khatib .............................................. 1
1.1 A Brief History of Robotics .............................................. 1
1.2 The Robotics Community................................................ 3
1.3 This Handbook........................................................... 4
Video-References ............................................................... 5
Part A Robotics Foundations
2 Kinematics
Kenneth J. Waldron, James Schmiedeler ...................................... 11
2.1 Overview ................................................................. 12
2.2 Position and Orientation Representation ............................. 12
2.3 Joint Kinematics ......................................................... 21
2.4 Geometric Representation .............................................. 25
2.5 Workspace ............................................................... 27
2.6 Forward Kinematics ..................................................... 28
2.7 Inverse Kinematics ...................................................... 29
2.8 Forward Instantaneous Kinematics .................................... 31
2.9 Inverse Instantaneous Kinematics ..................................... 32
2.10 Static Wrench Transmission............................................. 33
2.11 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 33
References ....................................................................... 33
3 Dynamics
Roy Featherstone, David E. Orin ................................................ 37
3.1 Overview ................................................................. 38
3.2 Spatial Vector Notation ................................................. 39
3.3 Canonical Equations .................................................... 45
3.4 Dynamic Models of Rigid-Body Systems............................... 47
3.5 Kinematic Trees .......................................................... 51
3.6 Kinematic Loops ......................................................... 58
3.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 61
References ....................................................................... 63
4 Mechanism and Actuation
Victor Scheinman, J. Michael McCarthy, Jae-Bok Song....................... 67
4.1 Overview ................................................................. 68
4.2 System Features ......................................................... 68
4.3 Kinematics and Kinetics ................................................ 69
4.4 Serial Robots ............................................................. 72
4.5 Parallel Robots........................................................... 73
4.6 Mechanical Structure.................................................... 75
4.7 Joint Mechanisms ....................................................... 76
XLIV Contents
4.8 Actuators ................................................................. 78
4.9 Robot Performance...................................................... 85
4.10 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 87
Video-References ............................................................... 87
References ....................................................................... 87
5 Sensing and Estimation
Henrik I. Christensen, Gregory D. Hager ....................................... 91
5.1 Introduction ............................................................. 91
5.2 The Perception Process .................................................. 92
5.3 Sensors ................................................................... 94
5.4 Estimation Processes .................................................... 98
5.5 Representations ......................................................... 109
5.6 Conclusions and Further Readings ..................................... 111
References ....................................................................... 111
6 Model Identification
John Hollerbach, Wisama Khalil, Maxime Gautier ........................... 113
6.1 Overview ................................................................. 113
6.2 Kinematic Calibration ................................................... 115
6.3 Inertial Parameter Estimation .......................................... 122
6.4 Identifiability and Numerical Conditioning ........................... 127
6.5 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 135
Video-References ............................................................... 136
References ....................................................................... 137
7 Motion Planning
Lydia E. Kavraki, Steven M. LaValle ............................................ 139
7.1 Robotics Motion Planning .............................................. 139
7.2 Motion Planning Concepts.............................................. 140
7.3 Sampling-Based Planning.............................................. 141
7.4 Alternative Approaches ................................................. 144
7.5 Differential Constraints ................................................. 148
7.6 Extensions and Variations .............................................. 151
7.7 Advanced Issues ......................................................... 154
7.8 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 157
Video-References ............................................................... 158
References ....................................................................... 158
8 Motion Control
Wan Kyun Chung, Li-Chen Fu, Torsten Kröger................................. 163
8.1 Introduction to Motion Control......................................... 164
8.2 Joint Space Versus Operational Space Control......................... 166
8.3 Independent-Joint Control ............................................. 167
8.4 PID Control ............................................................... 169
8.5 Tracking Control.......................................................... 172
8.6 Computed-Torque Control .............................................. 174
8.7 Adaptive Control......................................................... 177
8.8 Optimal and Robust Control ............................................ 181
8.9 Trajectory Generation and Planning ................................... 183
8.10 Digital Implementation ................................................. 187
Contents XLV
8.11 Learning Control ......................................................... 190
Video-References ............................................................... 191
References ....................................................................... 191
9 Force Control
Luigi Villani, Joris De Schutter .................................................. 195
9.1 Background .............................................................. 195
9.2 Indirect Force Control ................................................... 198
9.3 Interaction Tasks......................................................... 205
9.4 Hybrid Force/Motion Control............................................ 211
9.5 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 216
Video-References ............................................................... 217
References ....................................................................... 218
10 Redundant Robots
Stefano Chiaverini, Giuseppe Oriolo, Anthony A. Maciejewski ............... 221
10.1 Overview ................................................................. 221
10.2 Task-Oriented Kinematics .............................................. 224
10.3 Inverse Differential Kinematics......................................... 227
10.4 Redundancy Resolution via Optimization ............................. 232
10.5 Redundancy Resolution via Task Augmentation ...................... 233
10.6 Second-Order Redundancy Resolution ................................ 236
10.7 Cyclicity................................................................... 237
10.8 Fault Tolerance .......................................................... 237
10.9 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 239
Video-References ............................................................... 239
References ....................................................................... 240
11 Robots with Flexible Elements
Alessandro De Luca, Wayne J. Book ............................................ 243
11.1 Robots with Flexible Joints ............................................. 244
11.2 Robots with Flexible Links .............................................. 263
Video-References ............................................................... 279
References ....................................................................... 279
12 Robotic Systems Architectures and Programming
David Kortenkamp, Reid Simmons, Davide Brugali .......................... 283
12.1 Overview ................................................................. 283
12.2 History.................................................................... 285
12.3 Architectural Components .............................................. 289
12.4 Case Study – GRACE...................................................... 296
12.5 The Art of Robot Architectures.......................................... 298
12.6 Implementing Robotic Systems Architectures ......................... 299
12.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 302
Video-References ............................................................... 302
References ....................................................................... 302
13 Behavior-Based Systems
François Michaud, Monica Nicolescu .......................................... 307
13.1 Robot Control Approaches .............................................. 308
13.2 Basic Principles of Behavior-Based Systems .......................... 310
XLVI Contents
13.3 Basis Behaviors .......................................................... 313
13.4 Representation in Behavior-Based Systems........................... 313
13.5 Learning in Behavior-Based Systems .................................. 314
13.6 Applications and Continuing Work..................................... 318
13.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 322
Video-References ............................................................... 322
References ....................................................................... 323
14 AI Reasoning Methods for Robotics
Michael Beetz, Raja Chatila, Joachim Hertzberg, Federico Pecora........... 329
14.1 Why Should a Robot Use AI-Type Reasoning? ......................... 330
14.2 Knowledge Representation and Processing ........................... 330
14.3 Reasoning and Decision Making ....................................... 338
14.4 Plan-Based Robot Control .............................................. 346
14.5 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 351
Video-References ............................................................... 351
References ....................................................................... 352
15 Robot Learning
Jan Peters, Daniel D. Lee, Jens Kober, Duy Nguyen-Tuong,
J. Andrew Bagnell, Stefan Schaal .............................................. 357
15.1 What Is Robot Learning ................................................. 358
15.2 Model Learning .......................................................... 360
15.3 Reinforcement Learning ................................................ 372
15.4 Conclusions .............................................................. 385
Video-References ............................................................... 386
References ....................................................................... 386
Part B Design
16 Design and Performance Evaluation
Jorge Angeles, Frank C. Park .................................................... 399
16.1 The Robot Design Process ............................................... 400
16.2 Workspace Criteria....................................................... 401
16.3 Dexterity Indices......................................................... 405
16.4 Other Performance Indices ............................................. 408
16.5 Other Robot Types ....................................................... 411
16.6 Summary ................................................................. 416
References ....................................................................... 416
17 Limbed Systems
Shuuji Kajita, Christian Ott ..................................................... 419
17.1 Design of Limbed Systems .............................................. 420
17.2 Conceptual Design....................................................... 420
17.3 Whole Design Process Example......................................... 423
17.4 Model Induced Design .................................................. 427
17.5 Various Limbed Systems ................................................ 434
17.6 Performance Indices .................................................... 437
Video-References ............................................................... 439
References ....................................................................... 440
Contents XLVII
18 Parallel Mechanisms
Jean-Pierre Merlet, Clément Gosselin, Tian Huang ........................... 443
18.1 Definitions ............................................................... 443
18.2 Type Synthesis of Parallel Mechanisms ................................ 445
18.3 Kinematics ............................................................... 446
18.4 Velocity and Accuracy Analysis ......................................... 447
18.5 Singularity Analysis ..................................................... 448
18.6 Workspace Analysis...................................................... 450
18.7 Static Analysis ........................................................... 451
18.8 Dynamic Analysis ........................................................ 452
18.9 Design .................................................................... 452
18.10 Wire-Driven Parallel Robots ............................................ 453
18.11 Application Examples ................................................... 455
18.12 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 455
Video-References ............................................................... 456
References ....................................................................... 456
19 Robot Hands
Claudio Melchiorri, Makoto Kaneko............................................ 463
19.1 Basic Concepts ........................................................... 464
19.2 Design of Robot Hands.................................................. 465
19.3 Technologies for Actuation and Sensing .............................. 470
19.4 Modeling and Control of a Robot Hand ............................... 473
19.5 Applications and Trends ................................................ 477
19.6 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 478
Video-References ............................................................... 478
References ....................................................................... 479
20 Snake-Like and Continuum Robots
Ian D. Walker, Howie Choset, Gregory S. Chirikjian ........................... 481
20.1 Snake Robots – Short History .......................................... 481
20.2 Continuum Robots – Short History..................................... 485
20.3 Snake-Like and Continuum Robot Modeling.......................... 487
20.4 Modeling of Locomotion for Snake-Like
and Continuum Mechanisms ........................................... 491
20.5 Conclusion and Extensions to Related Areas .......................... 492
Video-References ............................................................... 492
References ....................................................................... 493
21 Actuators for Soft Robotics
Alin Albu-Schäffer, Antonio Bicchi ............................................. 499
21.1 Background .............................................................. 500
21.2 Soft Robot Design........................................................ 502
21.3 Modeling Actuators for Soft Robotics .................................. 508
21.4 Modeling Soft Robots ................................................... 511
21.5 Stiffness Estimation ..................................................... 513
21.6 Cartesian Stiffness Control .............................................. 515
21.7 Periodic Motion Control................................................. 518
21.8 Optimal Control of Soft Robots ......................................... 521
21.9 Conclusions and Open Problems ....................................... 524
XLVIII Contents
Video-References ............................................................... 525
References ....................................................................... 526
22 Modular Robots
I-Ming Chen, Mark Yim ......................................................... 531
22.1 Concepts and Definitions ............................................... 531
22.2 Reconfigurable Modular Manipulators ................................ 533
22.3 Self-Reconfigurable Modular Robots .................................. 535
22.4 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 539
Video-References ............................................................... 540
References ....................................................................... 540
23 Biomimetic Robots
Kyu-Jin Cho, Robert Wood ...................................................... 543
23.1 Overview ................................................................. 544
23.2 Components of Biomimetic Robot Design ............................. 544
23.3 Mechanisms.............................................................. 545
23.4 Material and Fabrication ............................................... 561
23.5 Conclusion ............................................................... 567
Video-References ............................................................... 568
References ....................................................................... 570
24 Wheeled Robots
Woojin Chung, Karl Iagnemma ................................................ 575
24.1 Overview ................................................................. 575
24.2 Mobility of Wheeled Robots ............................................ 576
24.3 Wheeled Robot Structures .............................................. 582
24.4 Wheel–Terrain Interaction Models ..................................... 586
24.5 Wheeled Robot Suspensions ........................................... 589
24.6 Conclusions .............................................................. 592
Video-References ............................................................... 592
References ....................................................................... 593
25 Underwater Robots
Hyun-Taek Choi, Junku Yuh .................................................... 595
25.1 Background .............................................................. 595
25.2 Mechanical Systems ..................................................... 596
25.3 Power Systems ........................................................... 599
25.4 Underwater Actuators and Sensors .................................... 601
25.5 Computers, Communications, and Architecture....................... 606
25.6 Underwater Manipulators .............................................. 614
25.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 617
Video-References ............................................................... 617
References ....................................................................... 618
26 Flying Robots
Stefan Leutenegger, Christoph Hürzeler, Amanda K. Stowers, Kostas Alexis,
Markus W. Achtelik, David Lentink, Paul Y. Oh, Roland Siegwart ........... 623
26.1 Background and History ................................................ 624
26.2 Characteristics of Aerial Robotics ....................................... 625
26.3 Basics of Aerodynamics and Flight Mechanics ........................ 629
26.4 Airplane Modeling and Design ......................................... 641
Contents XLIX
26.5 Rotorcraft Modeling and Design........................................ 647
26.6 Flapping Wing Modeling and Design .................................. 653
26.7 System Integration and Realization.................................... 659
26.8 Applications of Aerial Robots ........................................... 662
26.9 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 666
Video-References ............................................................... 666
References ....................................................................... 667
27 Micro-/Nanorobots
Bradley J. Nelson, Lixin Dong, Fumihito Arai ................................. 671
27.1 Overview of Micro- and Nanorobotics ................................. 671
27.2 Scaling.................................................................... 674
27.3 Actuation at the Micro- and Nanoscales .............................. 675
27.4 Imaging at the Micro- and Nanoscales................................ 676
27.5 Fabrication............................................................... 678
27.6 Microassembly ........................................................... 681
27.7 Microrobotics ............................................................ 687
27.8 Nanorobotics............................................................. 692
27.9 Conclusions .............................................................. 704
Video-References ............................................................... 704
References ....................................................................... 705
Part C Sensing and Perception
28 Force and Tactile Sensing
Mark R. Cutkosky, William Provancher......................................... 717
28.1 Overview ................................................................. 717
28.2 Sensor Types ............................................................. 718
28.3 Tactile Information Processing ......................................... 725
28.4 Integration Challenges .................................................. 730
28.5 Conclusions and Future Developments ................................ 731
Video-References ............................................................... 731
References ....................................................................... 731
29 Inertial Sensing, GPS and Odometry
Gregory Dudek, Michael Jenkin ................................................ 737
29.1 Odometry ................................................................ 737
29.2 Gyroscopic Systems ...................................................... 739
29.3 Accelerometers .......................................................... 742
29.4 IMU Packages ............................................................ 743
29.5 Satellite-Based Positioning (GPS and GNSS) .......................... 744
29.6 GPS-IMU Integration .................................................... 749
29.7 Further Reading ......................................................... 750
29.8 Currently Available Hardware .......................................... 750
References ....................................................................... 751
30 Sonar Sensing
Lindsay Kleeman, Roman Kuc .................................................. 753
30.1 Sonar Principles ......................................................... 754
30.2 Sonar Beam Pattern ..................................................... 756
30.3 Speed of Sound.......................................................... 758
L Contents
30.4 Waveforms ............................................................... 758
30.5 Transducer Technologies ................................................ 759
30.6 Reflecting Object Models................................................ 760
30.7 Artifacts .................................................................. 761
30.8 TOF Ranging.............................................................. 762
30.9 Echo Waveform Coding.................................................. 765
30.10 Echo Waveform Processing.............................................. 767
30.11 CTFM Sonar............................................................... 769
30.12 Multipulse Sonar ........................................................ 772
30.13 Sonar Rings and Arrays ................................................. 773
30.14 Motion Effects ........................................................... 775
30.15 Biomimetic Sonars ...................................................... 778
30.16 Conclusions .............................................................. 779
Video-References ............................................................... 780
References ....................................................................... 780
31 Range Sensing
Kurt Konolige, Andreas Nüchter ................................................ 783
31.1 Range Sensing Basics ................................................... 783
31.2 Sensor Technologies..................................................... 785
31.3 Registration .............................................................. 794
31.4 Navigation and Terrain Classification and Mapping .................. 804
31.5 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 807
References ....................................................................... 807
32 3-D Vision for Navigation and Grasping
Danica Kragic, Kostas Daniilidis ............................................... 811
32.1 Geometric Vision ........................................................ 812
32.2 3-D Vision for Grasping ................................................. 820
32.3 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 822
Video-References ............................................................... 822
References ....................................................................... 822
33 Visual Object Class Recognition
Michael Stark, Bernt Schiele, Aleš Leonardis .................................. 825
33.1 Object Classes ............................................................ 825
33.2 Review of the State of the Art .......................................... 826
33.3 Discussion and Conclusions ............................................ 837
References ....................................................................... 838
34 Visual Servoing
François Chaumette, Seth Hutchinson, Peter Corke ........................... 841
34.1 The Basic Components of Visual Servoing ............................. 842
34.2 Image-Based Visual Servo .............................................. 843
34.3 Pose-Based Visual Servo................................................ 851
34.4 Advanced Approaches................................................... 854
34.5 Performance Optimization and Planning ............................. 856
34.6 Estimation of 3-D Parameters .......................................... 858
34.7 Determining s and Matching Issues .................................. 859
34.8 Target Tracking ........................................................... 859
Contents LI
34.9 Eye-in-Hand and Eye-to-Hand Systems Controlled
in the Joint Space ....................................................... 860
34.10 Under Actuated Robots ................................................. 861
34.11 Applications.............................................................. 863
34.12 Conclusions .............................................................. 863
Video-References ............................................................... 863
References ....................................................................... 863
35 Multisensor Data Fusion
Hugh Durrant-Whyte, Thomas C. Henderson.................................. 867
35.1 Multisensor Data Fusion Methods...................................... 867
35.2 Multisensor Fusion Architectures....................................... 880
35.3 Applications.............................................................. 885
35.4 Conclusions .............................................................. 889
Video-References ............................................................... 889
References ....................................................................... 890
Part D Manipulation and Interfaces
36 Motion for Manipulation Tasks
James Kuffner, Jing Xiao ........................................................ 897
36.1 Overview ................................................................. 898
36.2 Task-Level Control ....................................................... 900
36.3 Manipulation Planning ................................................. 904
36.4 Assembly Motion ........................................................ 911
36.5 Unifying Feedback Control and Planning.............................. 918
36.6 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 920
Video-References ............................................................... 923
References ....................................................................... 923
37 Contact Modeling and Manipulation
Imin Kao, Kevin M. Lynch, Joel W. Burdick .................................... 931
37.1 Overview ................................................................. 931
37.2 Kinematics of Rigid-Body Contact ..................................... 932
37.3 Forces and Friction ...................................................... 936
37.4 Rigid-Body Mechanics with Friction................................... 939
37.5 Pushing Manipulation .................................................. 942
37.6 Contact Interfaces and Modeling....................................... 943
37.7 Friction Limit Surface.................................................... 946
37.8 Contacts in Grasping and Fixture Designs ............................. 949
37.9 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 950
Video-References ............................................................... 951
References ....................................................................... 951
38 Grasping
Domenico Prattichizzo, Jeffrey C. Trinkle....................................... 955
38.1 Models and Definitions ................................................. 956
38.2 Controllable Twists and Wrenches ..................................... 961
38.3 Compliant Grasps ........................................................ 965
38.4 Restraint Analysis ....................................................... 967
LII Contents
38.5 Examples ................................................................. 975
38.6 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 985
Video-References ............................................................... 986
References ....................................................................... 986
39 Cooperative Manipulation
Fabrizio Caccavale, Masaru Uchiyama ......................................... 989
39.1 Historical Overview ...................................................... 990
39.2 Kinematics and Statics .................................................. 991
39.3 Cooperative Task Space.................................................. 995
39.4 Dynamics and Load Distribution ....................................... 996
39.5 Task-Space Analysis ..................................................... 998
39.6 Control.................................................................... 999
39.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1003
Video-References ............................................................... 1004
References ....................................................................... 1004
40 Mobility and Manipulation
Oliver Brock, Jaeheung Park, Marc Toussaint ................................. 1007
40.1 Grasping and Manipulation ............................................ 1009
40.2 Control.................................................................... 1013
40.3 Motion Generation ...................................................... 1017
40.4 Learning.................................................................. 1021
40.5 Perception ............................................................... 1025
40.6 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1029
Video-References ............................................................... 1029
References ....................................................................... 1030
41 Active Manipulation for Perception
Anna Petrovskaya, Kaijen Hsiao................................................ 1037
41.1 Perception via Manipulation ........................................... 1037
41.2 Object Localization ...................................................... 1038
41.3 Learning About an Object............................................... 1049
41.4 Recognition .............................................................. 1054
41.5 Conclusions .............................................................. 1057
Video-References ............................................................... 1058
References ....................................................................... 1058
42 Haptics
Blake Hannaford, Allison M. Okamura ........................................ 1063
42.1 Overview ................................................................. 1064
42.2 Haptic Device Design .................................................... 1068
42.3 Haptic Rendering ........................................................ 1071
42.4 Control and Stability of Force Feedback Interfaces ................... 1073
42.5 Other Types of Haptic Interfaces........................................ 1075
42.6 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1079
References ....................................................................... 1079
43 Telerobotics
Günter Niemeyer, Carsten Preusche, Stefano Stramigioli, Dongjun Lee ..... 1085
43.1 Overview and Terminology ............................................. 1085
Contents LIII
43.2 Telerobotic Systems and Applications ................................. 1087
43.3 Control Architectures .................................................... 1090
43.4 Bilateral Control and Force Feedback .................................. 1095
43.5 Emerging Applications of Telerobotics ................................. 1101
43.6 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1104
Video-References ............................................................... 1104
References ....................................................................... 1105
44 Networked Robots
Dezhen Song, Ken Goldberg, Nak-Young Chong.............................. 1109
44.1 Overview and Background.............................................. 1109
44.2 A Brief History ........................................................... 1110
44.3 Communications and Networking ..................................... 1112
44.4 Properties of Networked Robots ....................................... 1115
44.5 Cloud Robotics ........................................................... 1121
44.6 Conclusion and Future Directions ...................................... 1125
Video-References ............................................................... 1126
References ....................................................................... 1126
Part E Moving in the Environment
45 World Modeling
Wolfram Burgard, Martial Hebert, Maren Bennewitz......................... 1135
45.1 Historical Overview ...................................................... 1136
45.2 Models for Indoors and Structured Environments .................... 1137
45.3 World and Terrain Models for Natural Environments ................. 1141
45.4 Dynamic Environments ................................................. 1149
45.5 Summary and Further Reading......................................... 1149
Video-References ............................................................... 1150
References ....................................................................... 1150
46 Simultaneous Localization and Mapping
Cyrill Stachniss, John J. Leonard, Sebastian Thrun ........................... 1153
46.1 SLAM: Problem Definition............................................... 1154
46.2 The Three Main SLAM Paradigms ....................................... 1157
46.3 Visual and RGB-D SLAM ................................................. 1166
46.4 Conclusion and Future Challenges ..................................... 1169
Video-References ............................................................... 1170
References ....................................................................... 1171
47 Motion Planning and Obstacle Avoidance
Javier Minguez, Florant Lamiraux, Jean-Paul Laumond ..................... 1177
47.1 Nonholonomic Mobile Robots: Where Motion Planning
Meets Control Theory .................................................... 1178
47.2 Kinematic Constraints and Controllability ............................. 1179
47.3 Motion Planning and Small-Time Controllability ..................... 1180
47.4 Local Steering Methods and Small-Time Controllability.............. 1181
47.5 Robots and Trailers ...................................................... 1184
47.6 Approximate Methods .................................................. 1186
47.7 From Motion Planning to Obstacle Avoidance ........................ 1187
LIV Contents
47.8 Definition of Obstacle Avoidance ...................................... 1187
47.9 Obstacle Avoidance Techniques ........................................ 1188
47.10 Robot Shape, Kinematics, and Dynamics in Obstacle Avoidance.... 1194
47.11 Integration Planning – Reaction ....................................... 1196
47.12 Conclusions, Future Directions, and Further Reading ................ 1198
Video-References ............................................................... 1199
References ....................................................................... 1199
48 Modeling and Control of Legged Robots
Pierre-Brice Wieber, Russ Tedrake, Scott Kuindersma ........................ 1203
48.1 A Brief History of Legged Robots ....................................... 1204
48.2 The Dynamics of Legged Locomotion .................................. 1204
48.3 Stability Analysis – Not Falling Down.................................. 1209
48.4 Generation of Dynamic Walking and Running Motions .............. 1214
48.5 Motion and Force Control............................................... 1222
48.6 Towards More Efficient Walking ........................................ 1225
48.7 Different Contact Behaviors............................................. 1227
48.8 Conclusion ............................................................... 1228
References ....................................................................... 1228
49 Modeling and Control of Wheeled Mobile Robots
Claude Samson, Pascal Morin, Roland Lenain ................................ 1235
49.1 Background .............................................................. 1236
49.2 Control Models ........................................................... 1238
49.3 Adaptation of Control Methods for Holonomic Systems .............. 1240
49.4 Methods Specific to Nonholonomic Systems .......................... 1241
49.5 Path Following in the Case of Nonideal Wheel-Ground Contact .... 1255
49.6 Complementary Issues and Bibliographical Guide ................... 1261
Video-References ............................................................... 1263
References ....................................................................... 1263
50 Modeling and Control of Robots on Rough Terrain
Keiji Nagatani, Genya Ishigami, Yoshito Okada .............................. 1267
50.1 Overview ................................................................. 1268
50.2 Modeling of Wheeled Robot in Rough Terrain ........................ 1270
50.3 Control of Wheeled Robot in Rough Terrain........................... 1274
50.4 Modeling of Tracked Vehicle on Rough Terrain........................ 1276
50.5 Stability Analysis of Tracked Vehicles .................................. 1278
50.6 Control of Tracked Vehicle on Rough Terrain .......................... 1279
50.7 Summary ................................................................. 1281
Video-References ............................................................... 1281
References ....................................................................... 1282
51 Modeling and Control of Underwater Robots
Gianluca Antonelli, Thor I. Fossen, Dana R. Yoerger ......................... 1285
51.1 The Expanding Role of Marine Robotics in Oceanic Engineering .... 1285
51.2 Underwater Robotics .................................................... 1287
51.3 Applications.............................................................. 1302
51.4 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1303
Video-References ............................................................... 1304
References ....................................................................... 1304
Contents LV
52 Modeling and Control of Aerial Robots
Robert Mahony, Randal W. Beard, Vijay Kumar .............................. 1307
52.1 Overview ................................................................. 1307
52.2 Modeling Aerial Robotic Vehicles ...................................... 1309
52.3 Control.................................................................... 1316
52.4 Trajectory Planning...................................................... 1324
52.5 Estimating the Vehicle State............................................ 1328
52.6 Conclusion ............................................................... 1330
Video-References ............................................................... 1331
References ....................................................................... 1331
53 Multiple Mobile Robot Systems
Lynne E. Parker, Daniela Rus, Gaurav S. Sukhatme ........................... 1335
53.1 History.................................................................... 1336
53.2 Architectures for Multirobot Systems................................... 1337
53.3 Communication.......................................................... 1339
53.4 Networked Mobile Robots .............................................. 1340
53.5 Swarm Robots ........................................................... 1351
53.6 Modular Robotics........................................................ 1354
53.7 Heterogeneity............................................................ 1357
53.8 Task Allocation........................................................... 1359
53.9 Learning.................................................................. 1361
53.10 Applications.............................................................. 1362
53.11 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1366
Video-References ............................................................... 1366
References ....................................................................... 1367
Part F Robots at Work
54 Industrial Robotics
Martin Hägele, Klas Nilsson, J. Norberto Pires, Rainer Bischoff ............. 1385
54.1 Industrial Robotics: The Main Driver for Robotics Research
and Application ......................................................... 1386
54.2 A Short History of Industrial Robots ................................... 1386
54.3 Industrial Robot Kinematics ............................................ 1392
54.4 Typical Industrial Robot Applications .................................. 1393
54.5 Safe Human–Robot Collaboration ..................................... 1405
54.6 Task Descriptions – Teaching and Programming...................... 1409
54.7 System Integration ...................................................... 1414
54.8 Outlook and Long-Term Challenges.................................... 1416
Video-References ............................................................... 1418
References ....................................................................... 1418
55 Space Robotics
Kazuya Yoshida, Brian Wilcox, Gerd Hirzinger, Roberto Lampariello ....... 1423
55.1 Historical Developments and Advances of Orbital Robotic Systems . 1424
55.2 Historical Developments and Advances of Surface Robotic Systems. 1430
55.3 Mathematical Modeling................................................. 1437
55.4 Future Directions of Orbital and Surface Robotic Systems ............ 1452
55.5 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1457
LVI Contents
Video-References ............................................................... 1457
References ....................................................................... 1458
56 Robotics in Agriculture and Forestry
Marcel Bergerman, John Billingsley, John Reid, Eldert van Henten ......... 1463
56.1 Section Scope ............................................................ 1464
56.2 Challenges and Opportunities .......................................... 1465
56.3 Case Studies.............................................................. 1467
56.4 Conclusion ............................................................... 1487
Video-References ............................................................... 1488
References ....................................................................... 1489
57 Robotics in Construction
Kamel S. Saidi, Thomas Bock, Christos Georgoulas ........................... 1493
57.1 Overview ................................................................. 1494
57.2 Offsite Applications of Robotics in Construction ...................... 1499
57.3 Onsite Applications of Single Task Construction Robots .............. 1504
57.4 Integrated Robotized Construction Sites............................... 1511
57.5 Currently Unsolved Technical Problems................................ 1514
57.6 Future Directions ........................................................ 1516
57.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1516
Video-References ............................................................... 1517
References ....................................................................... 1517
58 Robotics in Hazardous Applications
James Trevelyan, William R. Hamel, Sung-Chul Kang........................ 1521
58.1 Operation in Hazardous Environments:
The Need for a Robotics Solution ...................................... 1521
58.2 Applications.............................................................. 1523
58.3 Enabling Technologies .................................................. 1537
58.4 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1544
Video-References ............................................................... 1545
References ....................................................................... 1546
59 Robotics in Mining
Joshua A. Marshall, Adrian Bonchis, Eduardo Nebot, Steven Scheding .... 1549
59.1 Modern Mining Practice................................................. 1550
59.2 Surface Mining........................................................... 1552
59.3 Underground Mining .................................................... 1562
59.4 Challenges and Industry Acceptance .................................. 1568
59.5 Challenges, Outlook, and Conclusion .................................. 1569
Video-References ............................................................... 1571
References ....................................................................... 1572
60 Disaster Robotics
Robin R. Murphy, Satoshi Tadokoro, Alexander Kleiner ...................... 1577
60.1 Overview ................................................................. 1578
60.2 Disaster Characteristics and Impact on Robots........................ 1581
60.3 Robots Actually Used at Disasters ...................................... 1582
60.4 Robots at the Fukushima-Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident ... 1588
60.5 Lessons Learned, Challenges, and Novel Approaches ................ 1591
Contents LVII
60.6 Evaluation ............................................................... 1598
60.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1600
Video-References ............................................................... 1601
References ....................................................................... 1601
61 Robot Surveillance and Security
Wendell H. Chun, Nikolaos Papanikolopoulos ................................ 1605
61.1 Overview ................................................................. 1605
61.2 Application Domains .................................................... 1607
61.3 Enabling Technologies .................................................. 1608
61.4 Active Research .......................................................... 1617
61.5 Conclusion ............................................................... 1622
Video-References ............................................................... 1623
References ....................................................................... 1623
62 Intelligent Vehicles
Alberto Broggi, Alex Zelinsky, Ümit Özgüner, Christian Laugier ............. 1627
62.1 The Motivation and Approaches to Intelligent Vehicles .............. 1628
62.2 Enabling Technologies .................................................. 1632
62.3 Road Scene Understanding ............................................. 1635
62.4 Advanced Driver Assistance............................................. 1639
62.5 Driver Monitoring........................................................ 1645
62.6 Towards Fully Autonomous Vehicles .................................. 1647
62.7 Future Trends and Prospects ........................................... 1650
62.8 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1651
Video-References ............................................................... 1651
References ....................................................................... 1652
63 Medical Robotics and Computer-Integrated Surgery
Russell H. Taylor, Arianna Menciassi, Gabor Fichtinger, Paolo Fiorini,
Paolo Dario ...................................................................... 1657
63.1 Core Concepts ............................................................ 1658
63.2 Technology ............................................................... 1662
63.3 Systems, Research Areas, and Applications ........................... 1667
63.4 Conclusion and Future Directions ...................................... 1675
Video-References ............................................................... 1676
References ....................................................................... 1676
64 Rehabilitation and Health Care Robotics
H.F. Machiel Van der Loos, David J. Reinkensmeyer, Eugenio Guglielmelli . 1685
64.1 Overview ................................................................. 1686
64.2 Rehabilitation Therapy and Training Robots .......................... 1692
64.3 Aids for People with Disabilities ....................................... 1703
64.4 Smart Prostheses and Orthoses ........................................ 1711
64.5 Augmentation for Diagnosis and Monitoring ......................... 1713
64.6 Safety, Ethics, Access and Economics .................................. 1715
64.7 Conclusions and Further Readings ..................................... 1716
Video-References ............................................................... 1717
References ....................................................................... 1718
LVIII Contents
65 Domestic Robotics
Erwin Prassler, Mario E. Munich, Paolo Pirjanian, Kazuhiro Kosuge ........ 1729
65.1 Mobile Domestic Robotics .............................................. 1730
65.2 Enabling Technologies .................................................. 1747
65.3 Smart Homes ............................................................ 1754
Video-References ............................................................... 1757
References ....................................................................... 1757
66 Robotics Competitions and Challenges
Daniele Nardi, Jonathan Roberts, Manuela Veloso, Luke Fletcher........... 1759
66.1 Introduction ............................................................. 1760
66.2 Overview ................................................................. 1760
66.3 Competitions Inspired by Human Competitions ...................... 1762
66.4 Task-Oriented Competitions ............................................ 1769
66.5 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 1780
Video-References ............................................................... 1781
References ....................................................................... 1781
Part G Robots and Humans
67 Humanoids
Paul Fitzpatrick, Kensuke Harada, Charles C. Kemp, Yoshio Matsumoto,
Kazuhito Yokoi, Eiichi Yoshida ................................................. 1789
67.1 Why Humanoids? ........................................................ 1789
67.2 History.................................................................... 1792
67.3 What to Immitate? ...................................................... 1794
67.4 Locomotion .............................................................. 1795
67.5 Whole-Body Activities .................................................. 1801
67.6 Morphological Communication......................................... 1809
67.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1813
Video-References ............................................................... 1813
References ....................................................................... 1813
68 Human Motion Reconstruction
Katsu Yamane, Wataru Takano................................................. 1819
68.1 Overview ................................................................. 1819
68.2 Models and Computations .............................................. 1820
68.3 Reconstruction for Understanding ..................................... 1825
68.4 Reconstruction for Robots .............................................. 1829
Video-References ............................................................... 1830
References ....................................................................... 1831
69 Physical Human–Robot Interaction
Sami Haddadin, Elizabeth Croft................................................ 1835
69.1 Classification............................................................. 1836
69.2 Human Safety............................................................ 1839
69.3 Human-Friendly Robot Design ......................................... 1847
69.4 Control for Physical Interaction ........................................ 1853
69.5 Motion Planning for Human Environments ........................... 1859
69.6 Interaction Planning .................................................... 1862
Contents LIX
69.7 Conclusions and Challenges ............................................ 1867
Video-References ............................................................... 1868
References ....................................................................... 1869
70 Human–Robot Augmentation
Massimo Bergamasco, Hugh Herr.............................................. 1875
70.1 Concept and Definitions ................................................ 1876
70.2 Upper Limb Wearable Systems ......................................... 1877
70.3 Lower Limb Wearable Systems.......................................... 1882
70.4 Whole Body Wearable Systems ......................................... 1889
70.5 Control of Human–Robot Augmentation Systems .................... 1892
70.6 Conclusions and Further Developments ............................... 1902
Video-References ............................................................... 1902
References ....................................................................... 1902
71 Cognitive Human–Robot Interaction
Bilge Mutlu, Nicholas Roy, Selma Šabanović .................................. 1907
71.1 Human Models of Interaction .......................................... 1908
71.2 Robot Models of Interaction............................................ 1914
71.3 Models of Human–Robot Interaction.................................. 1916
71.4 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 1927
Video-References ............................................................... 1927
References ....................................................................... 1928
72 Social Robotics
Cynthia Breazeal, Kerstin Dautenhahn, Takayuki Kanda..................... 1935
72.1 Overview ................................................................. 1936
72.2 Social Robot Embodiment .............................................. 1936
72.3 Social Robots and Social-Emotional Intelligence..................... 1938
72.4 Socio-Cognitive Skills ................................................... 1941
72.5 Human Social Responses to Social Robots............................. 1944
72.6 Social Robots and Communication Skills .............................. 1946
72.7 Long-Term Interaction with Robot Companions ...................... 1950
72.8 Tactile Interaction with Social Robots ................................. 1954
72.9 Social Robots and Teamwork ........................................... 1958
72.10 Conclusion ............................................................... 1959
72.11 Further Reading ......................................................... 1960
Video-References ............................................................... 1960
References ....................................................................... 1961
73 Socially Assistive Robotics
Maja J. Matarić, Brian Scassellati .............................................. 1973
73.1 Overview ................................................................. 1973
73.2 The Need for Socially Assistive Robotics ............................... 1974
73.3 Advantages of Embodied Robots over Virtual Agents ................ 1975
73.4 Motivation, Autonomy, and Companionship.......................... 1977
73.5 Influence and the Dynamics of Assistive Interaction................. 1978
73.6 Personalization and Adaptation to Specific Needs and Abilities .... 1978
73.7 Creating Long-Term Engagement and Behaviour Change ............ 1979
73.8 SAR for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Therapy ..................... 1980
73.9 SAR Supporting Rehabilitation ......................................... 1982
LX Contents
73.10 SAR and Eldercare ....................................................... 1985
73.11 SAR for Alzheimer’s Dementia and Cognitive Rehabilitation ........ 1986
73.12 Ethical and Safety Considerations...................................... 1987
References ....................................................................... 1988
74 Learning from Humans
Aude G. Billard, Sylvain Calinon, Rüdiger Dillmann.......................... 1995
74.1 Learning of Robots ...................................................... 1995
74.2 Key Issues When Learning from Human Demonstrations ............ 1998
74.3 Interfaces for Demonstration ........................................... 2000
74.4 Algorithms to Learn from Humans ..................................... 2002
74.5 Conclusions and Open Issues in Robot LfD ............................ 2008
Video-References ............................................................... 2009
References ....................................................................... 2009
75 Biologically Inspired Robotics
Fumiya Iida, Auke Jan Ijspeert ................................................. 2015
75.1 General Background..................................................... 2016
75.2 Methodology............................................................. 2017
75.3 Case Studies.............................................................. 2021
75.4 Landscape of Bio-Inspired Robotics Research and Challenges ...... 2026
75.5 Conclusion ............................................................... 2028
Video-References ............................................................... 2028
References ....................................................................... 2029
76 Evolutionary Robotics
Stefano Nolfi, Josh Bongard, Phil Husbands, Dario Floreano................ 2035
76.1 Method................................................................... 2036
76.2 First Steps ................................................................ 2036
76.3 Simulation and Reality.................................................. 2040
76.4 Behavior as a Complex Adaptive System .............................. 2041
76.5 Evolving Bodies.......................................................... 2044
76.6 Seeing the Light ......................................................... 2046
76.7 Computational Neuroethology ......................................... 2049
76.8 Evolution and Learning ................................................. 2054
76.9 Evolution of Social Behavior............................................ 2057
76.10 Evolutionary Hardware ................................................. 2060
76.11 Closing Remarks ......................................................... 2061
Video-References ............................................................... 2061
References ....................................................................... 2062
77 Neurorobotics: From Vision to Action
Patrick van der Smagt, Michael A. Arbib, Giorgio Metta ..................... 2069
77.1 Definitions and History ................................................. 2070
77.2 The Case for Vision ...................................................... 2071
77.3 Vertebrate Motor Control................................................ 2075
77.4 The Role of Mirror Systems.............................................. 2082
77.5 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 2089
References ....................................................................... 2090
Contents LXI
78 Perceptual Robotics
Heinrich Bülthoff, Christian Wallraven, Martin A. Giese...................... 2095
78.1 Perceptual Mechanisms of Object Representations ................... 2097
78.2 Perceptual Mechanisms of Action Representation.................... 2103
78.3 Perceptual Validation of Robotics ...................................... 2107
78.4 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 2108
Video-References ............................................................... 2109
References ....................................................................... 2109
79 Robotics for Education
David P. Miller, Illah Nourbakhsh .............................................. 2115
79.1 The Role of Robots in Education ....................................... 2116
79.2 Educational Robot Tournaments ....................................... 2117
79.3 Education Robot Platforms ............................................. 2120
79.4 Education Robot Controllers and Programming Environments ...... 2123
79.5 Robotic Technologies for Student Learning............................ 2127
79.6 Educational Evaluation of Robot Programs............................ 2129
79.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 2131
Video-References ............................................................... 2131
References ....................................................................... 2131
80 Roboethics: Social and Ethical Implications
Gianmarco Veruggio, Fiorella Operto, George Bekey ......................... 2135
80.1 A Methodological Note.................................................. 2137
80.2 Specificity of Robotics ................................................... 2138
80.3 Cultural Differences in the Acceptance of Robots ..................... 2138
80.4 Roboethics Foreshadowed in the Literature .......................... 2139
80.5 And Expressed in Real Robotics ........................................ 2139
80.6 Ethics in Science and Technology ...................................... 2140
80.7 Ethical Issues in an ICT Society ......................................... 2143
80.8 Human Principles and Rights .......................................... 2144
80.9 Legal Issues in Robotics ................................................. 2146
80.10 Roboethics Taxonomy ................................................... 2147
80.11 Roboethics Enforced: From Ideals to Rules ............................ 2156
80.12 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 2157
Video-References ............................................................... 2158
References ....................................................................... 2159
Acknowledgements .............................................................. 2161
About the Authors ................................................................ 2163
Index ................................................................................ 2197