Springer handbook of robotics

【实例简介】
这本书涵盖了机器人领域的所有方面，以及最新进展。这对于了解机器人领域、选取研究方向有莫大的帮助。每一章都可以作为最权威的综述文章来读，因为作者都是该领域最权威的研究学者。
Springer Handbooks provide a concise compilation of approved key information on methods of research. general principles and functional relationships in physi cal sciences and engineering. The worlds leading experts in the fields of physics and engineering will be igned by one or several renowned editors to write the chapters com prising each volume. The content is selected by these experts from S Is online content) and other systematic and approved recent publications of physical and technical information designed to be useful as readable desk reference books to give a fast and comprehen sive overview and easy retrieval of essential reliable key information including tables, graphs, and bibli- graphies. References to extensive sources are provided Han prince of robotics Bruno Siciliano, Oussama khatib(eds With DVD-Rom, 953 Figures, 422 in four color and 84 Tables S ringer Editors Professor bruno siciliano PRISMA Lab Dipartimento di Informatica e Sistemistica Universita degli studi di napoli federico II Via Claudio 21, 80125 Napoli, Italy siciliano nina. it Professor oussama Khatib Artificial Intelligence laboratory Department of computer Science Stanford Universit Stanford. CA 94305-9010 USA khatib @cs. stanford. edu Library of Congress Control Number 2007942155 ISBN:978-3-540-23957-4 e-ISBN:978-3-540-30301-5 This work is subject to copyright. All rights reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. 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Skolaut, Heidelberg Typography and layout: schreiber vis, seeheim Illustrations: Hippmann GbR, Schwarzenbruck Cover design: eStudio calamar Steinen barcelona Cover production: WMXDesign GmbH, Heidelberg Printing and binding: Sturtz GmbH, wurzburg Printed on acid free paper SPIN1091840189/3180/YL543210 Foreword My first introduction to robotics came via a phone call exoskeletal devices to enhance hu- in 1964. The caller was Fred Terman, the author of the man performance. In those days world-famous Radio Engineers Handbook, who was there were no microprocessors. So at the time provost of stanford University. Dr. Terman these devices were either without informed me that a computer science professor, John computer control, or tethered to McCarthy, had just been awarded a large research grant, a remote so-called minicomputer, part of which required the development of computer- or even a mainframe computer controlled manipulators. Someone had suggested to Initially, some in the computer Terman that it would be prudent if the mathematically science community felt that com- oriented McCarthy had some contact with mechanical puters were powerful enough to designers. Since I was the only one on the Stanford control any mechanical device and faculty whose specialty was mechanism design, Terman make it perform satisfactorily. We Bernard Roth decided to phone me even though we had never met and quickly learned that this was not to Professor of Mechanical I was a young assistant professor fresh out of graduate be the case. We started on a twofold Stanford University school with only 2 years at Stanford track. One was to develop particu Dr. Terman's phone call led me to a close association lar devices for SAIL, so that hardware demonstrations with John McCarthy and the Stanford Artificial Intel- and proof-of-concept systems were available for the ligence Laboratory(SAIL) that he founded. robotics fledgling robotics community to experiment with. The became one of the pillars of my entire academic ca- other track, which was more or less moonlighted from reer, and i have maintained my interest in teaching and the work at SAIL, was the development of a basic me researching the subject through to the present day chanical science of robotics. I had a strong feeling that The modern history of robotic manipulation dates a meaningful science could be developed and that it from the late 1940s when servoed arms were developed would be best to think in terms of general concepts rather in connection with master-slave manipulator systems than concentrate exclusively on particular devices used to protect technicians handling nuclear materials Fortuitously, it turned out that the two tracks sup Developments in this area have continued to the present ported each other very naturally and, most importantly, day. However, in the early 1960s there was very little the right students were interested in doing their re academic or commercial activity in robotics. The first search in this area. Hardware developments proved to academic activity was the thesis of H A. ernst, in 1961, be specific examples of more general concepts, and the at MIT. He used a slave arm equipped with touch sensors, students were able to develop both the hardware and the and ran it under computer control. The idea in his study theory was to use the information from the touch sensors to Originally, we purchased an arm in order to get guide the arm started quickly. a group at Rancho Los Amigos This was followed by the sail project and a simi- Hospital, in Los Angeles, was selling a tongue-switch- lar project started by Professor Marvin Minsky at mit, controlled motor-driven exoskeleton arm to assist which were the only sizeable academic ventures into patients without muscular control of their arms. We pur robotics at that time There were a few attempts at com- chased one of these and connected it to a time-shared mercial manipulators, primarily in connection with part PDP-6 computer. The device was named Butterfingers;it production in the automotive industry. In the Usa there was our first experimental robot. Several films demon were two different manipulator designs that were being strating visual feedback control, block stacking tasks experimented with in the auto industry; one came from and obstacle avoidance were made with Butterfingers as American Machine and Foundry (AMF) and the other the star performer from unimation Inc The first manipulator that we designed on our own There were also a few mechanical devices developed was known simply as the Hydraulic arm. As its name as hand, leg, and arm prosthetics, and, a bit later, some implies, it was powered by hydraulics. The idea was to build a very fast arm. We designed special rotary left Unimation, his colleagues Brian Carlisle and Bruce actuators, and the arm worked well. It became the ex- Shimano reorganized unimation's West Coast division perimental platform for testing the first ever dynamic into Adept, Inc, which to this day is the largest US analysis and time- optimal control of a robotic arm How- manufacturer of assembly robots ever, its use was limited since the design speeds were Quickly the modern trend of carefully detailed me much faster than required due to the limitations of the chanical and electronic design, optimized software, and computational, planning, and sensing capabilities that complete system integration became the norm; to this were common at that time day, this combination represents the hallmark of most We made an attempt to develop a truly digital arm. highly regarded robotic devices. This is the basic con This led to a snake-like structure named the Orm( the cept behind mechatronic, a word conied in Japan as Norwegian word for snake. The Orm had several stages, a concatenation of the words mechanics and electronics each with an array of infatable pneumatic actuators that Mechatronics that relies on computation is the essence were either fully extended or fully contracted. The basic of the technology inherent in robotics as we know it idea was that, even though only a finite number of po- today sitions in the workspace could be reached, these would As robotics developed around the world, a large be sufficient if there were a large number of positions. number of people started working on various aspects A small prototype proof-of-concept Orm was developed. and specific subspecialties developed. The first big di- It led to the realization that this type of arm would not vision was between people working on manipulators really serve the SAIL community. and those working on vision systems. Early on,V The first truly functional arm from our group was sion systems seemed to hold more promise than any designed by victor Scheinman, who was a graduate stu- other method for giving robots information about their dent at the time. It was the very successful Stanford arm, environment of which over ten copies were made as research tools The idea was to have a television camera capture to be used in various university, government, and indus- pictures of objects in the environment, and then use trial laboratories. The arm had six independently driven algorithms that allowed the computer images of the joints; all driven by computer-controlled servoed, dc pictures to be analyzed, so as to infer required infor electric motors. One joint was telescoping(prismatic) mation about location, orientation, and other properties and the other five were rotary(revolute) of objects. The initial successes with image systems ie whereas the geometry of Butterfingers required an were in problems dealing with positioning blocks, solv- erative solution of the inverse kinematics, the geomet- ing object manipulation problems, and reading assembly ric configuration of the Stanford Arm was chosen so drawings. It was felt that vision held potential for use that the inverse kinematics could be programmed in any in robotic systems in connection with factory automa easy-to-use time-efficient closed form Furthermore, the tion and space exploration This led to research into mechanical design was specifically made to be compat- software that would allow vision systems to recognize ible with the limitations inherent in timeshare computer machine parts (particularly partially occluded parts, as control. Various end-effectors could be attached to act occurred in the so-called"bin-picking,problems)and as hands. On our version, the hand was in the form ragged-shaped rocks of a vise-grip jaw, with two sliding fingers driven by After the ability to“‘see” and move objects became a servoed actuator(hence, a true seventh degree of free- established, the next logical need had to do with plan dom). It also had a specially designed six-axis wrist force ning a sequence of events to accomplish a complex task sensor. Victor Scheinman went on to develop other im- This led to the development of planning as an impor- portant robots: the first was a small humanoid arm with tant branch in robotics. Making fixed plans for a known six revolute joints. The original design was paid for by fixed environment is relatively straightforward. How Marvin minsky at the mit ai lab. Scheinman founded ever, in robotics, one of the challenges is to let the Vicar, a small company, and produced copies of this robot discover its environment, and to modify its ac arm and the stanford arm for other labs. Vicarm later be- tions when the environment changes unexpectedly due came the West Coast Division of Unimation, Inc, where to errors or unplanned events. Some early landmark stud Scheinman designed the PUMA manipulator under Gen- ies in this area were carried out using a vehicle named eral Motors sponsorship through Unimation Later, for Shakey, which, starting in 1966, was developed by char a company called Automatix, Scheinman developed the lie Rosen's group at the Stanford Research Institute novel Robot World multirobot system. After Scheinman (now called SrI. Shakey had a TV camera, a trian gulating range finder, bump sensors, and was connected tions were formed(the Japan Robot Association was to DEC PDP-10 and PDP-15 computers via radio and formed in March 1971, and the robotic Industries as video links sociation (Ria) was founded in 1974 in the usa) and Shakey was the first mobile robot to reason about trade shows, together with application-oriented techni- its actions. It used programs that gave it the abil- cal sessions, were introduced and held on a regular basis ity for independent perception world modeling. and The most important were the international symposium action generation. Low-level action routines took on Industrial Robots, the Conference on Industrial robot care of simple moving, turning, and route planning. Technology(now called the International Conference on Intermediate-level actions combined the low-level ones Industrial Robot Technology), and the ria annual trade in ways that accomplished more complex tasks. The show, which is now called the International robots and highest level programs could make and execute plans to Vision Show and Conference achieve high-level goals supplied by a user The first regular series of conferences emphasizing Vision is very useful for navigation, locating objects, research, rather than the industrial, aspects of robotics and determining their relative positions and orientation. was inaugurated in 1973. It was sponsored jointly by the However, it is usually not sufficient for assembling parts International Center for Mechanical Sciences(CISM) or working with robots where there are environmental based in Udine, Italy, and the International Federation constraining forces. This led to the need to measure the for the Theory of Mechanisms and Machines (IFToMM) orces and torques generated by the environment, on (Although IFToMM is still used, its meaning has been a robot and to use these measurements to control the changed to the international Federation for the pro- robot's actions. For many years, force-controlled ma- motion of Mechanism and Machine Science. )It was nipulation became one of the main topics of study at named the Symposium on Theory and Practice of Robots SAIL, and several other labs around the world. The use and Manipulators(RoManSy). Its trademark was an of force control in industrial practice has always lagged emphasis on the mechanical sciences and the active the research developments in this area. This seems to participation of researchers from Eastern and Western be due to the fact that, while a high level of force Europe as well as north america and japan It is still control is very useful for general manipulation issues, held biannually. On a personal note, it is at RoManS specific problems in very restricted industrial environ- where I first met each of the editors of this Handbook: ments can often be handled with limited, or no, force Dr Khatib in 1978 and Dr Siciliano in 1984. They were control both students: Bruno Siciliano had been working on his In the 1970s, specialized areas of study such as PhD for about one year, and Oussama Khatib had just walking machines, hands, automated vehicles, sensor completed his PhD research. In both cases, it was love integration, and design for hostile environments began at first sight to develop rapidly. Today there are a large number of dif- RoManSy was quickly joined by a host of other ferent specialties studied under the heading of robotic s and workshops today ther Some of these specialties are classical engineering sub- number of research oriented robotics meetings that take ject areas within which results have been developed that place through the year in many countries. Currently, have been particularized to the types of machines called the largest conference is the International Conference robots. Examples here are kinematics, dynamics, con- on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), which regularly trols, machine design, topology, and trajectory planning. draws well over 1000 participants Each of these subjects has a long history predating the In the beginning of the 1980s, the first real text study of robotics; yet each has been an area of in-depth book on robotic manipulation in the uSa was written robotics research in order to develop its special charac- by Richard"Lou?"Paul(Richard P. Paul, Robot Manip ter in regard to robotic-type systems and applications. ulators: Mathematics, Programming and Control, The In doing this specialized development, researchers have MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1981). It used the idea enriched the classical subjects by increasing both their of taking classical subjects in mechanics and applying content and scope them to robotics. In addition there were several top At the same time that the theory was being devel- ics developed directly from his thesis research at SAIL oped, there was a parallel, although somewhat separate, (In the book, many examples are based on Scheinman's growth of industrial robotics. Strong commercial devel- Stanford Arm. Pauls book was a landmark event in opment occurred in Japan and Europe, and there was the USA; it created a pattern for several influential also continued growth in the USA Industrial associa- future textbooks and also encouraged the creation of specialized robotics courses at a host of colleges and people get used to the activity being done by machines universities and the devices get downgraded from"“ robot”to“mna At about this same time, new journals were created chine" Machines that do not have fixed bases, and those to deal primarily with research papers in the areas re- that have arm-or leg-like appendages have the advan- lated to robotics. The International Journal of robotics tage of being more likely called robots, but it is hard to Research was founded in the spring of 1982, and three think of a consistent set of criteria that fits all the current years later the IEEE Journal of robotics and automation naming conventions (now the IEEE Transactions on robotics) was founded In actuality any machines, including familiar house As microprocessors became ubiquitous, the ques- hold appliances, which have microprocessors directing tion of what is or is not a robot came more into play. their actions can be considered as robots. In addition This issue has, in my mind, never been successfully to vacuum cleaners, there are washing machines, refrig- resolved. i do not think a definition will ever be univer- erators and dishwashers that could be easily marketed sally agreed upon. There are of course the science fiction as robotic devices. There are of course a wide range creatures-from-outer-space varieties, and the robots of of possibilities, including those machines that have the theater, literature, and the movies. There are ex- sensory environmental feedback and decision-makin amples of imaginary robot-like beings that predate the capabilities. In actual practice, in devices considered industrial revolution, but how about more down-to-Earth to be robotic, the amount of sensory and decision robots? In my view the definition is essentially a mov- making capability may vary from a great deal to ing target that changes its character with technological none progress. For example, when it was first developed, In recent decades the study of robotics has expanded a ships gyro auto-compass was considered a robot To- from a discipline centered on the study of mechatronic day, it is not generally included when we list the robots devices to a much broader interdisciplinary subject in our world. It has been demoted and is now considered An example of this is the area called human-centered an automatic control device robotics. Here one deals with the interactions between For many, the idea of a robot includes the concept humans and intelligent machines. This is a growing area of multifunctionality, meaning the device is designed where the study of the interactions between robots and and built with the ability to be easily adapted or repro- humans has enlisted expertise from outside the classi- grammed to do different tasks. In theory this idea is cal robotics domain. Concepts such as emotions in both valid, but in practice it turns out that most robotic de- robots and people are being studied, and older areas such vices are multifunctional in only a very limited arena. as human physiology and biology are being incorporated In industry it was quickly discovered that a specialized into the mainstream of robotics research These activi machine, in general, performs much better than a gen- ties enrich the field of robotics, as they introduce new eral purpose machine. furthermore, when the volume of engineering and science dimensions into the research production is high enough, a specialized machine can discourse cost less to manufacture than a generalized one. So, spe Originally, the nascent robotics community was fo cialized robots were developed for painting, riveting, cused on getting things to work. Many early devices quasiplanar parts assembly, press loading, circuit board were remarkable in that they worked at all, and little stuffing, etc. In some cases robots are used in such spe- notice was taken of their limited performance. Today, cialized ways that it becomes difficult to draw the line we have sophisticated, reliable devices as part of the between a So-called robot and an adjustable piece of modern array of robotic systems. This progress is the "fixed" automation Much of this practical unfolding is result of the work of thousands of people throughout contrary to the dream of the pioneers in robotics, who the world. A lot of this work took place in universi had hoped for the development of general purpose ma- ties, government research laboratories, and companies hines that would do everything,, and hence sell in It is a tribute to the worldwide engineering and scien great enough volume to be relatively inexpensive tific community that it has been able to create the vast My view is that the notion of a robot has to do with amount of information that is contained in the 64 chap which activities are, at a given time, associated with ters of this Handbook. Clearly these results did not arise people and which are associated with machines. If a ma- by any central planning or by an overall orderly scheme chine suddenly becomes able to do what we normally So the editors of this handbook were faced with the dif- associate with people, the machine can be upgraded in ficult task of organizing the material into a logical and classification and classified as a robot After a while ent whol X The editors have accomplished this by organizing the The third layer consists of two separate parts(a total contributions into a three-layer structure. The first layer of 22 chapters) that deal with advanced applications at deals with the foundations of the subject. This layer the forefront of todays research and development. There consists of a single part of nine chapters in which the are two parts to this layer one deals with field and service authors lay out the root subjects: kinematics dynamics robots, and the other deals with human-centered and control, mechanisms, architecture, programming, rea- lifelike robots. To the uninitiated observer, these chapters soning, and sensing. These are the basic technological are what advanced robotics is all about. However, it is building blocks for robotics study and development important to realize that many of these extraordinary The second layer has four parts. The first of these accomplishments would probably not exist without the deals with robot structures; these are the arms, legs, previous developments introduced in the first two layers hands, and other parts that most robots are made up of. of this Handbook At first blush, the hardware of legs, arms, and hands It is this intimate connection between theory and may look quite different from each other, yet they share practice that has nurtured the growth of robotics and a common set of attributes that allows them to all be become a hallmark of modern robotics These two com treated with the same, or closely related, aspects of the plementary aspects have been a source of great personal fundamentals described in the first layer satisfaction to those of us who have had the opportu The second part of this layer deals with sensing nity to both research and develop robotic devices. The and perception, which are basic abilities any truly au- contents of this handbook admirably reflect this com- tonomous robotic system must have. As was pointed out plementary aspect of the subject, and present a very earlier, in practice, many So-called robotic devices have useful bringing together of the vast accomplishments little of these abilities, but clearly the more advanced which have taken place in the last 50 years. Certainly, robots cannot exist without them, and the trend is very the contents of this Handbook will serve as a valuable much toward incorporating such capabilities into robotic tool and guide to those who will produce the even more devices. The third part of this layer treats the subject ar- capable and diverse next generations of robotic devices eas associated with the technology of manipulation and The editors and authors have my congratulations and the interfacing of devices. The fourth part of this layer admiration is made up of eight chapters that treat mobile robots and various forms of distributed robotics Stanford. august 2007 Bernard roth 【实例截图】
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